Culture and Issues of Gender and Sexuality
The chapter starts with two case studies about siblings that grew up differently and asks the question about whether or not each person got to choose their different interests or were they "assigned" to them (a boy who plays rough and tumble games who becomes an engineer and a girl who plays with barbies who did well in school and wanted a career, but had a family because she was raised to see her future role that way). Or was the other family experience so similar (a boy and girl in thailand who wore similar clothes, both went to university, one became an engineer and the other a teacher --not clear which was which)?
Sex and gender are different. Sex= biological aspects of femaleness and maleness. Gender= acquired behavioral and psychological aspects of being a woman or a man.
The relationship between biological sex characteristics and gendered social behavior is more complex than the old nature vs nurture discussion.
A person's sex is determined by 4 different criteria: chromosomes, hormones, gonads, and external genitalia. But the book says there are exceptions to just male and female. sometimes a female can carry the XY chromosomes of a male but show all "female" physical characteristics. Also, a female with the XX chromosomes may have a hormonal imbalance that causes her to have muscle patterns and genitals similar to males. So, this can even be tricky. Once a nurse declares the gender after birth, the first major decision of a child's life is made for them.
Gendered behavior is a social requirement. IDing someone as male or female provides us with one the most basic social clues as to how this person is likely to behave toward us and how we are expected to behave toward that person.
Theoretical Perspectives on Gender Differences
Biological Perspectives
boys and girls of any species have biological and physiological differences (chromosomes, hormone production, reproductive capabilities). But we don't know how these link with social behavior. Society determines a lot/most of how the different genders act and what's okay.
Evolutionary Perspectives
Many gender differences may be explained by an organism's motivation to pass on genes by producing offspring. Women can only produce so many children in a lifetime, so they put more energy into creating an environment that promotes the survival of a maximum number of children (food prep, home maintenance, protective network). However, men can produce an unlimited number of children. Men strive to produce as many as possible and they have to compete with other men to do this. The focus being on physical strength and aggressiveness.
Ultimately, they have the same goal-- to create children and they can do this by mating with a healthy partner with healthy genes. We both enhance our evolutionarily attractive characteristics (strength, sexual prowess, wealth and status for men and youthfulness and health for women to show they can bear many children).
Socialization and Learning Perspectives
From birth on we are all socialized into our culture and we learn to conform to the roles that culture says is consistent with our sex.
In a study done, they had adolescents draw pictures of the ideal woman and the ideal man. In most places the ideal woman was taking care of children, but in more masculine cultures they were business women. In more feminine cultures the men were also drawn taking care of children.
Infancy and Childhood
parents are the primary source of socialization for young children.
Gender Socialization
Most female stereotypes are of being more passive and nurturing while male ones are more aggressive and dominant.
Also, male stereotypes are more overt than female stereotypes and children are more familiar with them in general than female ones.
Stereotypes are already established in children at 8 years old and start affecting their behavior. (Interesting- age of accountability)
The feminist argument is that these stereotypes socialize women into lower-status roles and dependency due to power differential. This feminine idea is defined by men to preserve male privilege. By conforming to this feminine ideal, women become attractive and gain the recognition of powerful men.
This isn't the same in all cultures. In polygamous cultures this is a big deal because men are fighting for women and the competition is strong. However, in monogamous and polyandrous societies the number of partners is limited and there isn't the same competition. In Nyinba, Tibet for example, men are taught cooperation and sharing since they will one day share a common wife and children with 1 or more men. Socialization of girls in societies like this focuses more on independence and assertiveness (not obedience and submissiveness)
Cultural Influences on Female and Male Socialization
it's impossible to view socialization of behaviors outside of a cultural context. Cultures define the basic values and ideals as well as the agents who teach the values and the settings in which they are taught.
Gender Relationships in Childhood
Peers also play an important role in socialization
Gender segregation early indicates large differences in normative expectations for women and man. Mixed-sex peer groups may indicate greater equality between genders in adulthood. This isn't in all cultures and cases, but most often the case.
Preference for same-sex playmates is universal, regardless of cultural norms. This is true among various cultures with varied gender socializations.
The games they tend to play reinforce some social stereotypes- like girls playing cooperative and interpersonal games, while boys play competitive sports.
This lends to there being a biological difference in gender.
Adolescence
Markers of Sexual Maturation
There are distinct cultural markers that indicate a readiness among women and men to find a sexual partner.
The transition to adulthood is often a spiritual event with initiation ceremonies. But this isn't always marked by a single event.
Gender, Sexuality, and cultural Taboos
Once young men and women are sexually mature they are prepared to experience their first sexual encounter. Cultural norms determine a lot of this as well. Chastity norms are usually more strict for girls than boys across cultures.
In some cultures communication about sex is pretty taboo and surrounded by myths.
In some societies (like China) there are strict taboos and laws about sex- like only heterosexual intercourse within a monogamous marriage being legally and morally permissive. India as well- and these are protected by law with consequences.
In most cultures the concepts of gender and sexuality are closely related.
And this goes hand in hand with deviant sexual behavior (homosexuality, etc.).
Early and Middle Adulthood
This section discusses how gender influences the lives of adults in different cultural environments.
Status and the Division of Labor Within the Family
Historically and culturally, women have been in charge of the home and childrearing while men have been in charge of work outside the home. However, industrialization and economic pressures have changed this. This has changed traditional family roles.
This increased participation of women in the workforce hasn't changed gender roles all that much.
This creates a bit of a problem because now women have double the responsibility- they have to work in the world and take care of the home.
Division of Labor in the Workforce
Men and women are also often segregated into different occupations in the labor force.
These segregations are often based on gender stereotypes (for example women are more often teachers or nurses- because they are more nurturing jobs and men are more often in jobs that require more strength, or assertiveness like laborer jobs or executive positions). This segregation also happens with statused jobs (men having higher status jobs and women, lower).
Gender Relations in Social Status, Religion, and Public Policy
The social/economic stratification can be reflected in family relationships. If economic power= social power then the family member with the most social power will be most dominant in the family and a powerful influence. This means they make decisions, assert their needs and control resources. Since men typically fill this role they tend to shape relationships with their spouse and children.
The section goes on to discuss different countries where policies affect gender equality.
Later Adulthood and Old Age
Divorce and Widowhood
In India, divorce is never an option, but if a man in unhappy in his marriage he can take a second wife. On the other hand, if a wife is widowed, she is an outcast and is not allowed to remarry. Some women choose to burn themselves alive at their husband's funeral because widows are still honored if they die within a reasonable time frame after their spouse.
There are like 3 other case studies you can read about in other countries.
When viewing divorce, it's obvious that the culture shapes gender roles and behavior within a family. The option of divorce, when socially accepted, gives women power to negotiate equal status in the family.
Gender Roles and Status in Old Age
In a lot of societies, age is associated with a gain in community status. They also hold spiritual and religious responsibilities.
In societies where status is based on age and role, older women gain considerable power.
